Comprehensive Study to Decline the Burden of Skin Cancer
Abstract
Skin cancer is the most common malignancy worldwide, including malignant melanoma and Non-malignant melanoma. The progressive increase in the incidence of skin cancers is observed, mainly in cutaneous melanomas over the last few decades. UV exposure is the most common cause of skin cancer, which occurs due to mutations in the DNA of skin cells. The mutation in MAPK pathway was the main cause of the skin cancer, in which BRAF gene undergoes 75 somatic mutations. The mutation in DNA suppressed the tumor suppressor gene p53, inactivates DNA repair gene and causes mutation in proto-oncogene results in the formation of oncogene which promote the cell growth, cell proliferation and cell reproduction by affecting the process of apoptosis. Skin cancer can be prevented by healthy dietary intervention and regular physical activity. In the current review, we highlight recent global trends in the treatments of skin cancer which involve chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, biological therapy and surgery. These therapies show the effectiveness by improving the survival rate and quality of life.
Keywords:
Melanoma, skin cancer, UV-radiation, MAPK pathway and tumor suppression mechanism.DOI
https://doi.org/10.25004/IJPSDR.2018.100302References
1. Sharma J, Goyal PK. Chemoprevention of chemical induced skin cancer by Panax ginseng root extract. J Ginseng Res. 2015; 39(3): 265-73.
2. George M, Joseph L, Singh B, Sabu NS. Anti-Cancer Activity of Vinca difformis against DMBA Induced Skin Papilloma in Mice. Ijsrm. Human. 2016; 3(1): 1-10.
3. Lee SH, Jeong SK, Ahn SK. An Update of the Defensive Barrier Function of Skin. Yonsei Med J. 2006; 47(3): 293–306.
4. Panda S. Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer in India: Current Scenario. Indian J Dermatol. 2010; 55(4): 373–378.
5. Apalla Z, Lallas A, Sotiriou E, et al. Epidemiological trends in skin cancer. Dermatol Pract Concept. 2017; 7(2): 1–6.
6. Silpa SR, Chidvila V. A review on cancer. IRJP. 2013; 4(8): 83-88.
7. Chanda S, Nagani K. In vitro and in vivo Methods for Anticancer Activity Evaluation and Some Indian Medicinal Plants Possessing Anticancer Properties: An Overview. J Pharmacog Phytochem. 2013; 2(2): 141-152.
8. Mallikarjuna DGS, Sing R, Agarwal C, Agarwal R. Silibinin protects against photo-carcinogenesis via modulation of cell cycle regulators, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and Akt signaling. Cancer Res. 2004; 64: 6349-7.
9. Rivlin N, Brosh R, Oren M, Rotter V. Mutations in the p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene. Genes Cancer. 2011; 2(4): 466–474.
10. Lee E, Muller WJ. Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2010; 2(10): a003236.
11. WHO. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 1955.
12. Naylor M. Changes in Skin Cancer Management. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2010; 3(4): 16–19.
13. Saladi RN, Persaud AN. The causes of skin cancer: a comprehensive review. Drugs Today (Barc). 2005; 41(1): 37-53.
14. Fabbrocini G, Triassi M, Mauriello MC, et al. Epidemiology of Skin Cancer: Role of Some Environmental Factors. Cancers 2010; 2: 1980-1989.
15. Burke KE, Wei H. Synergistic damage by UVA radiation and pollutants. Toxicol. Ind. Health. 2009; 25: 219-224.
16. Bradford PT. Skin Cancer in Skin of Color. Dermatol Nurs. 2009; 21(4): 170–178.
17. Gupta AK, Bharadwaj M, Mehrotra R. Skin Cancer Concerns in People of Color: Risk Factors and Prevention. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2016; 17(12): 5257–5264.
18. D’Orazio J, Jarrett S, Amaro-Ortiz A, Scott T. UV radiation and the skin. Int J Mol Sci. 2013; 14: 12222–48.
19. McCourt C, Dolan O, Gormley G. Malignant Melanoma: A Pictorial Review. Ulster Med J. 2014 May; 83(2): 103–110.
20. Riker AI, Zea N, Trinh T. The Epidemiology, Prevention, and Detection of Melanoma. Ochsner J. 2010; 10(2): 56–65.
21. Panda S. Non-melanoma skin cancer in India: Current Scenario. Indian J Dermatol. 2010; 55(4): 373–378.
22. Marks R. An Overview of Skin Cancer: incidence and causation. Cancer 1995; 75: 607-612.
23. Lanoue J, Goldenberg G. Basal Cell Carcinoma- A Comprehensive Review of Existing and Emerging Nonsurgical Therapies. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2016; 9(5): 26–36.
24. Samarasinghe V, Madan V, Lear JT. Focus on Basal Cell Carcinoma. J Skin Cancer. 2011; 2011: 328615.
25. Yan W, Wistuba II, Emmert-Buck MR, Erickson HS. Review Article: Squamous cell carcinoma – similarities and differences among anatomical sites. Am J Cancer Res 2011; 1(3): 275-300.
26. Dourmishev LA, Rusinova D, Botev I. Clinical variants, stages, and management of basal cell carcinoma. IDOJ. 2013; 4(1): 1-12.
27. Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, Fritz AG, Greene FL, Trotti A.,editors. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 6th Printing. Berlin: Springer; 2010.
28. Mehta P, Shah B. Review on Techniques and Steps of Computer Aided Skin Cancer Diagnosis. Procedia Comp Sci. 2016; 85: 309-316.
29. Melanoma and Other Skin Cancers, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Cancer Institute Services, 2010.
30. Davids LM. Recent Advances in the Biology, Therapy and Management of Melanoma. INTECH. 2013.
31. Poljšak B, Dahmane RG. Skin Cancer, Free Radicals and Antioxidants. Int J Cancer. 2011; 4(3):1554-1134.
32. Turrens JF. Mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species. J Physiol. 2003; 552(2): 335–344.
33. Zorov DB, Juhaszova M, Sollott SJ. Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and ROS-Induced ROS Release. Physiol Rev. 2014; 94(3): 909–950.
34. Liou GY, Storz P. Reactive oxygen species in cancer. Free Radic Res. 2010; 44(5): 10.
35. Arkenau HT, Kefford R, Long GV. Targeting BRAF for patients with melanoma. Br J Cancer. 2011; 104(3): 392-98.
36. Bishop DT, Demenais F, Goldstein AM, et al. Geographical variation in the penetrance of CDKN2A mutations for melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002; 94(12): 894-903.
37. Ouhtit A, Ananthaswamy HM. A model for UV-induction of skin cancer. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2001; 1(1): 5–6.
38. Narendhirakannan RT, Hannah MAC. Oxidative Stress and Skin Cancer: An Overview. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2013; 28(2): 110–115.
39. Venza M, Visalli M, Beninati C. Cellular Mechanisms of Oxidative Stress and Action in Melanoma. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2015; http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/481782.
40. Pinon A, Limami Y, Micallef L, et al. A novel form of melanoma apoptosis resistance: melanogenesis up-regulation in apoptotic B16-F0 cells delays ursolic acid-triggered cell death. Exp Cell Res. 2011; 317(12): 1669-76.
41. Abel EL, Angel JM, et al. Multi-stage chemical carcinogenesis in mouse skin: Fundamentals and applications. Nature Protocols 2009; doi:10.1038/nprot.2009.120.
42. Kemp CJ. Multistep skin cancer in mice as a model to study the evolution of cancer cells. Semin Cancer Biol. 2005; 15(6): 460-73.
43. Yuspa, SH. The pathogenesis of squamous cell cancer: lessons learned from studies of skin carcinogenesis. J. Dermatol. Sci. 1998; 17: 1–7.
44. Rundhaug JE, Fischer SM. Molecular mechanisms of mouse skin tumor promotion. Cancers (Basel). 2010; 2(2): 436–482.
45. Oliveira PA, Colaço A, Chaves R, et al. Chemical carcinogenesis. An Acad Bras Cienc. 2007; 79(4): 593-616.
46. Scott RE, Wille JJ, Wier ML. Mechanisms for the Initiation and Promotion of Carcinogenesis: A Review and a New Concept. Mayo Clin Proc 1984; 59:107-117.
47. Neagu M, Caruntu C, et al. Chemically induced skin carcinogenesis: Updates in experimental models (Review). Oncology Reports 2016; 35: 2516-2528.
48. Mehta R. The potential for the use of cell proliferation and oncogene expression as intermediate markers during liver carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett 1995; 93: 85–102.
49. Dixon K, Kopras E. Genetic alterations and DNA repair in human carcinogenesis. Semin Cancer Biol. 2004; 14: 441–448.
50. Jhanwar D. Chemoprevention of DMBA induced skin carcinogenesis in swiss albino mice by quinine sulfate. IJIRR. 2016; 3(7): 2636-2640.
51. Qiblawi S, Dhanarasu S, Alaraj M. Chemopreventive potential of fish oil against 7, 12-dimethyl benz (a)anthracene and croton oil induced two-stage mouse skin papillomagenesis. Biomedical Research 2017; 28 (6): 2596-2603
52. Orthaber k, Pristovnik M, et al. Skin Cancer and Its Treatment: Novel Treatment Approaches with Emphasis on Nanotechnology. Journal of Nanomaterials 2016; https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2606271.
53. Fahradyan A, Howell AC, Wolfswinkel EM. Updates on the Management of Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer (NMSC). Healthcare 2017; 5: 82.
54. Kirby JS, Miller CJ. ntralesional chemotherapy for nonmelanoma skin cancer: a practical review. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010; 63(4): 689-702.
55. Torri V. Chemotherapy and Molecular Therapy in Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer. Current Cancer Therapy Reviews. 2016; 10.2174/1573394713666161229124633.
56. Berking C, Hauschild A, et al. Basal Cell Carcinoma—Treatments for the Commonest Skin Cancer. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2014; 111(22): 389–395.
57. Zhao B, Yu-Ying He. Recent advances in the prevention and treatment of skin cancer using photodynamic therapy. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2010; 10(11): 1797–1809.
58. Cohen DK, Lee PK. Photodynamic Therapy for Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers. Cancers (Basel). 2016; 8(10): 90.
59. Henderson BW, Dougherty TJ. How does photodynamic therapy work? Photochem. Photobiol. 1992; 55: 145–157.
60. Shah DJ, Dronca RS. Latest advances in chemotherapeutic, targeted, and immune approaches in the treatment of metastatic melanoma. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2014; 89: 504-519.
61. McGregor S, Minni J, Herold D. Superficial Radiation Therapy for the Treatment of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2015; 8(12): 12–14.
62. Reang P, Gupta M, Kohli K. Biological Response Modifiers in Cancer. Med Gen Med. 2006; 8(4): 33.
63. Phan NK. Biological therapy: a new age of cancer treatment. Biomed Res Ther. 2014; 1(2): 32-34.
64. Arruebo M, Vilaboa N, et al. Assessment of the Evolution of Cancer Treatment Therapies. Cancers (Basel). 2011; 3(3): 3279–3330.
65. Leung AM, Hari DM, Morton DL. Surgery for Distant Melanoma Metastasis. Cancer J. 2012; 18(2): 176–184.
66. Agarwal MG, Nayak P. Management of skeletal metastases: An orthopaedic surgeon's guide. Indian J Orthop. 2015; 49(1): 83–100.
67. Paul J. Cryotherapy of nonmelanoma skin cancer. Clinics in Dermatology 1995; 13(6): 589-592.
68. Alcalay J. The Value of Mohs Surgery for the Treatment of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers. J Cutan Aesthet Surg. 2012; 5(1): 1–2.
69. Bhandari PR, Pai VV. Novel Medical Strategies Combating Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer. Indian J Dermatol. 2014; 59(6): 531–546.
70. Amini S, Viera MH, Valins W, Berman B. Nonsurgical Innovations in the Treatment of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2010; 3(6): 20–34.
71. Belanger JT. Perillyl alcohol: Applications in oncology. Altern Med Rev. 1998; 3: 448–57.
72. Chaudhary SC, Alam MS, Siddiqui MS, Athar M. Perillyl alcohol attenuates Ras-ERK signaling to inhibit murine skin inflammation and tumorigenesis. Chem Biol Interact. 2009; 179(2-3):145–153.
73. Cornell RC, Greenway HT, Tucker SB, et al. Intralesional interferon therapy for basal cell carcinoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1990; 23: 694–700.
74. Marks F, Furstenberger G, Muller-Decker K. Metabolic targets of cancer chemoprevention: interruption of tumor development by inhibitors of arachidonic acid metabolism. Recent Results Cancer Res. 1999; 151: 45–67.
75. Rundhaug JE, Fischer SM. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 plays a critical role in UV-induced skin carcinogenesis. Photochem Photobiol. 2008; 84:322–9.
76. Uribe P, Gonzalez S. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin: Molecular bases for EGFR-targeted therapy. Pathol Res Pract. 2011; 207:337–42.
77. Chanprapaph K, Vachiramon V, Rattanakaemakorn P. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitors: A Review of Cutaneous Adverse Events and Management. Dermatol Res Pract. 2014; 2014: 734249.
78. Harari PM, Allen GW, Bonner JA. Biology of interactions: antiepidermal growth factor receptor agents. J Clin Oncol. 2007; 25(26):4057–4065.
2. George M, Joseph L, Singh B, Sabu NS. Anti-Cancer Activity of Vinca difformis against DMBA Induced Skin Papilloma in Mice. Ijsrm. Human. 2016; 3(1): 1-10.
3. Lee SH, Jeong SK, Ahn SK. An Update of the Defensive Barrier Function of Skin. Yonsei Med J. 2006; 47(3): 293–306.
4. Panda S. Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer in India: Current Scenario. Indian J Dermatol. 2010; 55(4): 373–378.
5. Apalla Z, Lallas A, Sotiriou E, et al. Epidemiological trends in skin cancer. Dermatol Pract Concept. 2017; 7(2): 1–6.
6. Silpa SR, Chidvila V. A review on cancer. IRJP. 2013; 4(8): 83-88.
7. Chanda S, Nagani K. In vitro and in vivo Methods for Anticancer Activity Evaluation and Some Indian Medicinal Plants Possessing Anticancer Properties: An Overview. J Pharmacog Phytochem. 2013; 2(2): 141-152.
8. Mallikarjuna DGS, Sing R, Agarwal C, Agarwal R. Silibinin protects against photo-carcinogenesis via modulation of cell cycle regulators, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and Akt signaling. Cancer Res. 2004; 64: 6349-7.
9. Rivlin N, Brosh R, Oren M, Rotter V. Mutations in the p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene. Genes Cancer. 2011; 2(4): 466–474.
10. Lee E, Muller WJ. Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2010; 2(10): a003236.
11. WHO. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 1955.
12. Naylor M. Changes in Skin Cancer Management. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2010; 3(4): 16–19.
13. Saladi RN, Persaud AN. The causes of skin cancer: a comprehensive review. Drugs Today (Barc). 2005; 41(1): 37-53.
14. Fabbrocini G, Triassi M, Mauriello MC, et al. Epidemiology of Skin Cancer: Role of Some Environmental Factors. Cancers 2010; 2: 1980-1989.
15. Burke KE, Wei H. Synergistic damage by UVA radiation and pollutants. Toxicol. Ind. Health. 2009; 25: 219-224.
16. Bradford PT. Skin Cancer in Skin of Color. Dermatol Nurs. 2009; 21(4): 170–178.
17. Gupta AK, Bharadwaj M, Mehrotra R. Skin Cancer Concerns in People of Color: Risk Factors and Prevention. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2016; 17(12): 5257–5264.
18. D’Orazio J, Jarrett S, Amaro-Ortiz A, Scott T. UV radiation and the skin. Int J Mol Sci. 2013; 14: 12222–48.
19. McCourt C, Dolan O, Gormley G. Malignant Melanoma: A Pictorial Review. Ulster Med J. 2014 May; 83(2): 103–110.
20. Riker AI, Zea N, Trinh T. The Epidemiology, Prevention, and Detection of Melanoma. Ochsner J. 2010; 10(2): 56–65.
21. Panda S. Non-melanoma skin cancer in India: Current Scenario. Indian J Dermatol. 2010; 55(4): 373–378.
22. Marks R. An Overview of Skin Cancer: incidence and causation. Cancer 1995; 75: 607-612.
23. Lanoue J, Goldenberg G. Basal Cell Carcinoma- A Comprehensive Review of Existing and Emerging Nonsurgical Therapies. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2016; 9(5): 26–36.
24. Samarasinghe V, Madan V, Lear JT. Focus on Basal Cell Carcinoma. J Skin Cancer. 2011; 2011: 328615.
25. Yan W, Wistuba II, Emmert-Buck MR, Erickson HS. Review Article: Squamous cell carcinoma – similarities and differences among anatomical sites. Am J Cancer Res 2011; 1(3): 275-300.
26. Dourmishev LA, Rusinova D, Botev I. Clinical variants, stages, and management of basal cell carcinoma. IDOJ. 2013; 4(1): 1-12.
27. Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, Fritz AG, Greene FL, Trotti A.,editors. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 6th Printing. Berlin: Springer; 2010.
28. Mehta P, Shah B. Review on Techniques and Steps of Computer Aided Skin Cancer Diagnosis. Procedia Comp Sci. 2016; 85: 309-316.
29. Melanoma and Other Skin Cancers, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Cancer Institute Services, 2010.
30. Davids LM. Recent Advances in the Biology, Therapy and Management of Melanoma. INTECH. 2013.
31. Poljšak B, Dahmane RG. Skin Cancer, Free Radicals and Antioxidants. Int J Cancer. 2011; 4(3):1554-1134.
32. Turrens JF. Mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species. J Physiol. 2003; 552(2): 335–344.
33. Zorov DB, Juhaszova M, Sollott SJ. Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and ROS-Induced ROS Release. Physiol Rev. 2014; 94(3): 909–950.
34. Liou GY, Storz P. Reactive oxygen species in cancer. Free Radic Res. 2010; 44(5): 10.
35. Arkenau HT, Kefford R, Long GV. Targeting BRAF for patients with melanoma. Br J Cancer. 2011; 104(3): 392-98.
36. Bishop DT, Demenais F, Goldstein AM, et al. Geographical variation in the penetrance of CDKN2A mutations for melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002; 94(12): 894-903.
37. Ouhtit A, Ananthaswamy HM. A model for UV-induction of skin cancer. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2001; 1(1): 5–6.
38. Narendhirakannan RT, Hannah MAC. Oxidative Stress and Skin Cancer: An Overview. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2013; 28(2): 110–115.
39. Venza M, Visalli M, Beninati C. Cellular Mechanisms of Oxidative Stress and Action in Melanoma. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2015; http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/481782.
40. Pinon A, Limami Y, Micallef L, et al. A novel form of melanoma apoptosis resistance: melanogenesis up-regulation in apoptotic B16-F0 cells delays ursolic acid-triggered cell death. Exp Cell Res. 2011; 317(12): 1669-76.
41. Abel EL, Angel JM, et al. Multi-stage chemical carcinogenesis in mouse skin: Fundamentals and applications. Nature Protocols 2009; doi:10.1038/nprot.2009.120.
42. Kemp CJ. Multistep skin cancer in mice as a model to study the evolution of cancer cells. Semin Cancer Biol. 2005; 15(6): 460-73.
43. Yuspa, SH. The pathogenesis of squamous cell cancer: lessons learned from studies of skin carcinogenesis. J. Dermatol. Sci. 1998; 17: 1–7.
44. Rundhaug JE, Fischer SM. Molecular mechanisms of mouse skin tumor promotion. Cancers (Basel). 2010; 2(2): 436–482.
45. Oliveira PA, Colaço A, Chaves R, et al. Chemical carcinogenesis. An Acad Bras Cienc. 2007; 79(4): 593-616.
46. Scott RE, Wille JJ, Wier ML. Mechanisms for the Initiation and Promotion of Carcinogenesis: A Review and a New Concept. Mayo Clin Proc 1984; 59:107-117.
47. Neagu M, Caruntu C, et al. Chemically induced skin carcinogenesis: Updates in experimental models (Review). Oncology Reports 2016; 35: 2516-2528.
48. Mehta R. The potential for the use of cell proliferation and oncogene expression as intermediate markers during liver carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett 1995; 93: 85–102.
49. Dixon K, Kopras E. Genetic alterations and DNA repair in human carcinogenesis. Semin Cancer Biol. 2004; 14: 441–448.
50. Jhanwar D. Chemoprevention of DMBA induced skin carcinogenesis in swiss albino mice by quinine sulfate. IJIRR. 2016; 3(7): 2636-2640.
51. Qiblawi S, Dhanarasu S, Alaraj M. Chemopreventive potential of fish oil against 7, 12-dimethyl benz (a)anthracene and croton oil induced two-stage mouse skin papillomagenesis. Biomedical Research 2017; 28 (6): 2596-2603
52. Orthaber k, Pristovnik M, et al. Skin Cancer and Its Treatment: Novel Treatment Approaches with Emphasis on Nanotechnology. Journal of Nanomaterials 2016; https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2606271.
53. Fahradyan A, Howell AC, Wolfswinkel EM. Updates on the Management of Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer (NMSC). Healthcare 2017; 5: 82.
54. Kirby JS, Miller CJ. ntralesional chemotherapy for nonmelanoma skin cancer: a practical review. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010; 63(4): 689-702.
55. Torri V. Chemotherapy and Molecular Therapy in Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer. Current Cancer Therapy Reviews. 2016; 10.2174/1573394713666161229124633.
56. Berking C, Hauschild A, et al. Basal Cell Carcinoma—Treatments for the Commonest Skin Cancer. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2014; 111(22): 389–395.
57. Zhao B, Yu-Ying He. Recent advances in the prevention and treatment of skin cancer using photodynamic therapy. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2010; 10(11): 1797–1809.
58. Cohen DK, Lee PK. Photodynamic Therapy for Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers. Cancers (Basel). 2016; 8(10): 90.
59. Henderson BW, Dougherty TJ. How does photodynamic therapy work? Photochem. Photobiol. 1992; 55: 145–157.
60. Shah DJ, Dronca RS. Latest advances in chemotherapeutic, targeted, and immune approaches in the treatment of metastatic melanoma. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2014; 89: 504-519.
61. McGregor S, Minni J, Herold D. Superficial Radiation Therapy for the Treatment of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2015; 8(12): 12–14.
62. Reang P, Gupta M, Kohli K. Biological Response Modifiers in Cancer. Med Gen Med. 2006; 8(4): 33.
63. Phan NK. Biological therapy: a new age of cancer treatment. Biomed Res Ther. 2014; 1(2): 32-34.
64. Arruebo M, Vilaboa N, et al. Assessment of the Evolution of Cancer Treatment Therapies. Cancers (Basel). 2011; 3(3): 3279–3330.
65. Leung AM, Hari DM, Morton DL. Surgery for Distant Melanoma Metastasis. Cancer J. 2012; 18(2): 176–184.
66. Agarwal MG, Nayak P. Management of skeletal metastases: An orthopaedic surgeon's guide. Indian J Orthop. 2015; 49(1): 83–100.
67. Paul J. Cryotherapy of nonmelanoma skin cancer. Clinics in Dermatology 1995; 13(6): 589-592.
68. Alcalay J. The Value of Mohs Surgery for the Treatment of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers. J Cutan Aesthet Surg. 2012; 5(1): 1–2.
69. Bhandari PR, Pai VV. Novel Medical Strategies Combating Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer. Indian J Dermatol. 2014; 59(6): 531–546.
70. Amini S, Viera MH, Valins W, Berman B. Nonsurgical Innovations in the Treatment of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2010; 3(6): 20–34.
71. Belanger JT. Perillyl alcohol: Applications in oncology. Altern Med Rev. 1998; 3: 448–57.
72. Chaudhary SC, Alam MS, Siddiqui MS, Athar M. Perillyl alcohol attenuates Ras-ERK signaling to inhibit murine skin inflammation and tumorigenesis. Chem Biol Interact. 2009; 179(2-3):145–153.
73. Cornell RC, Greenway HT, Tucker SB, et al. Intralesional interferon therapy for basal cell carcinoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1990; 23: 694–700.
74. Marks F, Furstenberger G, Muller-Decker K. Metabolic targets of cancer chemoprevention: interruption of tumor development by inhibitors of arachidonic acid metabolism. Recent Results Cancer Res. 1999; 151: 45–67.
75. Rundhaug JE, Fischer SM. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 plays a critical role in UV-induced skin carcinogenesis. Photochem Photobiol. 2008; 84:322–9.
76. Uribe P, Gonzalez S. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin: Molecular bases for EGFR-targeted therapy. Pathol Res Pract. 2011; 207:337–42.
77. Chanprapaph K, Vachiramon V, Rattanakaemakorn P. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitors: A Review of Cutaneous Adverse Events and Management. Dermatol Res Pract. 2014; 2014: 734249.
78. Harari PM, Allen GW, Bonner JA. Biology of interactions: antiepidermal growth factor receptor agents. J Clin Oncol. 2007; 25(26):4057–4065.
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01-05-2018
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“Comprehensive Study to Decline the Burden of Skin Cancer”. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, vol. 10, no. 3, May 2018, pp. 111-7, https://doi.org/10.25004/IJPSDR.2018.100302.
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How to Cite
“Comprehensive Study to Decline the Burden of Skin Cancer”. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, vol. 10, no. 3, May 2018, pp. 111-7, https://doi.org/10.25004/IJPSDR.2018.100302.
